IODINE
Iodine is utilized by every hormone receptor in the body. The absence of iodine causes a hormonal dysfunction that can be seen with practically every hormone inside the body. Dr. Flechas has recently been able to show that patients with insulin resistant diabetes have a partial to full remission of their illness in the presence of taking iodine. Iodine deficiency is also felt to be the source of ovarian cysts. With iodine replacement therapy the cysts disappear and women have stopped having ovarian cysts.”
All cells in the body need iodine for proper functioning. All glands (thyroid, adrenal, etc.) especially need iodine for the production of hormones. Dr. Brownstein believes that iodine deficiency is a major cause of breast cancer and other diseases of the reproductive organs such as ovarian, uterus and prostrate cysts and cancers. Iodine levels in US soil have fallen 50 per cent over the past 50 years and soil in the US is deficient in iodine. The Great Lakes region has some of lowest soil iodine levels in the world and this results in high levels of cancers related to iodine deficiency. Dr. Brownstein has been quite successful in treating fibrocystic breast disease (cysts in the breast) with iodine/iodine supplementation. In one case a 37 year-old woman with severe fibrocystic breast disease was completely cured after supplementing with 50 mgs of iodine a day for two months. Women with large breasts need more iodine than women with smaller breasts. Other medical authorities agree that iodine deficiency can lead to fibrocystic breast disease and/or ovarian cysts Iodine can similarly reduce uterine fibroids and one of the first conventional medical treatments for severe fibroids was to paint the uterus with iodine. [4] Some other medical conditions associated with iodine deficiency are goiters, Graves’ Disease, Hashimoto’s Disease, fatigue and impaired immune system function. Iodine deficiency during pregnancy can lead to miscarriages and reduced IQ in surviving offspring. The World Health Organization says that iodine deficiency is the largest single cause of mental retardation. Iodine also detoxifies the body by removing mercury, fluorides, chlorides, and bromides.
IODINE BENEFITS
“If you think you may be deficient in Iodine, consider this; most of the US population has one or more mercury amalgam fillings in their mouths. A consequence of this is that minute amounts of the heavy metal mercury are continuously being released into the mouth and absorbed into the body. This toxication stimulates a natural detox reaction by the body. Several mechanisms are utilized to remove the mercury. In order for these detoxification mechanisms to work properly, numerous essential minerals are utilized. Iodine, Zinc, Sulfur, Selenium, and Silica stimulate the excretion of heavy metals including mercury. Iodine is at the top of the list when it comes to mercury removal.
“Unfortunately, the average persons daily intake of Iodine is not high enough to keep them mercury free even when not exposed to excessive levels. Add on the exposure of mercury from vaccinations, smoking, etc., and you have the potential for serious heavy metal toxicity. This toxicity can manifest itself in many ways causing problems that would not normally be attributed to high levels of mercury.
“Iodine is essential for the health of the: Thyroid, Breast and Prostate.
“Iodine chelates:
- Mercury
- Lead
- Cadmium
- Aluminum
- Bromide
“Iodine helps to improve:
- Bowel irregularity
- Brain fog
- Renaud’s syndrome (numb finger tips)
- Low energy
- Sensitivity to cold
- Skin complexion
“In addition to mercury toxicity, you naturally have a major deficiency in the essential mineral Iodine if you are getting at or below the outdated RDA. Additionally, fluoride is an antagonistic element to Iodine, meaning it will impede the absorption of Iodine. Many of us are forced to drink fluoridated water and also brush our teeth with fluoride. Could an Iodine deficiency be related in some way to the current epidemic of hypothyroidism, breast, and prostate cancers? The protective function of Iodine in these tissues has not been described, but the fact that these tissues when healthy are replete with Iodine, and when diseased have little or no Iodine, leads one to think there is more than a casual link.”
GASTRO-INTESTINAL AND URINARY DISORDERS Medical Report #1559 : Out of 540 Gastro-Intestinal cases, 494 WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS. Out of 691 Urinary Disorders, 614 WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS. “Good results in several cases of GASTRO-INTESTINAL DISORDERS.” Report #1693.
“STOMACH ULCER cases are all well. Full recovery. Quite a feat as those were old ones and medical men were quite helpless.” Report #1976.
“Satisfactory in GASTRO-INTESTINAL DISTURBANCES.” Report #2089.
“Another intensely valuable property is its undoubted active therapeutic effect in the control of PUTREFACTIVE AND FERMENTATIVE CONDITIONS OF THE GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT.” Report #117.
“GASTRO-INTESTINAL CASES cured with nascent iodine.” Report #2258.
“STOMACH TROUBLES responded liberally as well as URINARY DISORDERS.” Report #127.
“GENITO-URINARY INFECTIONS – out of 320 cases, 84 CURED, 216 IMPROVED.” Hospital Report #1935.
“Diseases of URINARY TRACT, I cured about 20 with very nice results.” Report #1934.
“As a Urinary antiseptic in the presence of inflammation in the urinary tract, nascent iodine, I find SUPERIOR TO ANY OTHERS.” Report #1945.
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
Out of 1029 cases decided, 978 WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS. Report #1559.
“I have found a MEDICATION TO REDUCE BLOOD PRESSURE. A woman 80 years of age – BLOOD PRESSURE 210 – nascent iodine given in ten minim doses three times daily for five days. B.P. reduced to 160 – Five more days EFFECTED A REDUCTION TO 148.” Report #190.
“Find it DOES NOT PRODUCE IODISM. Use it myself for HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE. Other iodine preparations give me iodism very quickly.” Report #1581.
“Woman age 50 with a PRESSURE OF 285. Took it three times to make sure. Placed on 15 drops of nascent iodine three times a day for two weeks. The PRESSURE WENT DOWN TO 240, patient much improved. Man age 65 with a PRESSURE OF 180 – placed on nascent iodine. PRESSURE DOWN TO 150 – PATIENT DOING VERY WELL.” Report #1162.
“Found it very reliable drug in controlling HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE. Report #115.
“A woman complaining of violent headaches, dizziness, fatigue on slightest exertion. On taking the blood pressure, IMAGINE MY ALARM AT FINDING IT WAS 280. Today, only three weeks later, she was helping her husband in the field. Her husband is overjoyed and she herself is SINGING MY PRAISES TO THE NEIGHBORS. What did I give her? Ten drops of nascent iodine in half a glass of water 30 minutes before meals.” Report #1688.
“Case of HYPERTENSION with considerable discomfort from dizziness and pounding in the head. These symptoms have improved. The BLOOD PRESSURE DROPPED TO 150 and this has been WITH NO GASTRIC DISTRESS.” Report #1742.
IODINE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Out of 583 cases decided, 558 WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS. Report #1559.
“I use nascent iodine always as the REMEDY OF CHOICE where Iodine is Indicated in DEFICIENCY DISEASES. The action is prompt.” Report #1945.
“This form of iodine is without question our MOST VALUABLE THERAPEUTIC AGENT for the prevention and treatment of GOITRE.” Report #117.
“Had wonderful success with nascent iodine. GOOD RESULTS FOR GOITRE.” Report #1778.
“Use nascent iodine regularly for FURNISHING IODINE TO THE SYSTEM. Report #1943.
“Used nascent iodine when iodine is called for. IT IS CLEAN, NO STAIN, AND EFFECTIVE.” Report #2022.
“EXCELLENT results IN GOITRE of young girls.” Report #2031.
“All cases where iodine is indicated. WORKS WONDERS WITH CHILDREN.” Report #2106.
MALARIA AND TROPICAL FEVERS
“MALARIA FEVER, INTERMITTENT TYPE. Troubled with it years before. Gave nascent iodine. In three weeks NO TRACE OF MALARIA REMAINED. I GAVE ALL BLOOD TESTS. No return of the ailment. Report #1959.
“MALARIA: Treated 40 cases. YOUR DISCOVERY IS GOING TO MAKE A REVOLUTION IN THE WHOLE WORLD AS THE BEST REMEDY FOR TROPICAL FEVERS.” Reports #252 and 1934.
“Nascent iodine is an ASSET TO THE TROPICAL MEDICINE. Its virtues are unsurpassed in treating various TROPICAL FEVERS.” Report #1936.
“Male patient, TERTIAN MALARIA PROVEN BY SLIDE. CONTRACTED MALARIA 18 YEARS AGO. He was treated in the American Hospital but suffered relapses. Since the time he took nascent iodine he is FREE FROM FEVER. TOOK THREE MORE SLIDES – ALL NEGATIVE. THE LAST TWO YEARS HE NEVER HAD FEVER FOR ONE DAY.” Report #1937.
“Successfully tried several cases of MALARIA INFLUENZA AND OTHER FEVERS. Temperature becomes normal within twenty-four to forty-eight hours WITHOUT CAUSING ANY HARMFUL OR DEPRESSING EFFECTS ON THE HEART or reducing the vitality of the patient.” Report #1942.
“DENGUE FEVER, BLACKWATER AND ALL TYPES OF MALARIA are brought under control within 48 hours. Fever in general disappears after the third day. The general weakness following all fevers disappears within a week. IN NO CASE GASTRO-INTESTINAL SYMPTOMS FOUND TO APPEAR AS IN THE CASE OF QUININE in fever.” Report #1967.
“In fevers it is very fine and the improvements are soon noted. IT IS NON-TOXIC AND DOES NOT LEAVE ANY UNTOWARD AFTER EFFECTS to be feared.” Report #127.
“INFLUENZA – 53 CASES TREATED, ALL WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS.” Report #1559.
“A case of THIRD DAY CHILLS. Gave nascent iodine 4 weeks ago. Not had any more chills and feeling fine. So a GREAT DISCOVERY, I think.” Report #2154.
“FOUND nascent iodine SUPERIOR TO QUININE, as it promptly checks chills and brings the fever under control within 24 to 48 hours and there is a complete absence of undesirable symptoms associated with the use of quinine. nascent iodine IS WELL TOLERATED BY THE SYSTEM.” Report #2159.
“Used nascent iodine in OBSTINATE CASES OF MALARIA fever with splendid results.” Report #2178.
“Results have been very gratifying in the treatment of MALARIA. TREATED 5 CASES. In each case temperature dropped to normalcy in a few hours and had NO RETURN OF CHILLS OR FEVER.” Report #2164.
“Used nascent iodine in FOUR CASES OF MALARIA with splendid results. All symptoms subsided. Appetite greatly improved. BLOOD SMEARS NEGATIVE FOR MALARIA.” Report #2181.
“Pleased at results obtained in treating MALARIA with nascent iodine. Your preparation WILL HAVE WIDE FIELD OF USE IN MALARIAL CONDITIONS.” Report #2221.
“Used nascent iodine in a case of TERTIAN MALARIA, with splendid results. BLOOD NEGATIVE ON ALL FORMS IN FIVE DAYS.” Report #2230.
VENEREAL DISEASES
“NEISSERIAN INFECTION; 58 cases under observation. 28 CASES SHOW NEGATIVE SMEARS, decrease in the amount of discharge, disappearing of erosions. 11 cases show no improvement as to the amount of cervical discharge although smears were negative. 16 cases left the hospital.” City Hospital Report #1645.
“Tried nascent iodine over Venereal patients and found a REALLY RESPONSIVE PRODUCT. See no reason why every practitioner cannot get similar results.” Report #2134.
“In CHRONIC GONORRHEA CASES OF BOTH SEXES improved immediately the vital resistance of the patient, alleviating at once the GENITO-URINARY symptomatically. Good benefits results in cases of SYPHILIS IN ITS 2ND AND 3RD STAGE.” Report #1655.
“URETHRAL GONORRHEA, associated with STREPTOCOCCI INFECTION. Nascent iodine was given internally. Injections were given in Urethral tract. IN THREE WEEKS THE CASE WAS NEGATIVE to both gonorrhea and streptococcus.” Report #2166.
“Found nascent iodine UNEXCELLED IN THE TREATMENT OF SYPHILIS. TREATED 50 CASES.” Report #2159.
“Using nascent iodine IN PREFERENCE TO K. I. IN LUES.” Report #1594.
EYE, EAR, NOSE AND THROAT
THROAT INFECTIONS – Out of 1155 cases decided, 1122 WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS. Report #1559.
“Five to ten drops of nascent iodine put into one ounce of water makes an excellent collyrium (eye lotion). I have used it on my servant girl in a SEVERE INFLAMMATION OF BOTH EYES – of uncertain origin and diagnosis – that had resisted several kinds of treatment during three months. Above mentioned collyrium put into her eyes two drops two or three times a day. It had COMPLETELY CLEARED UP IN ONE WEEK.” Report #2180.
“During the past five years I have been trying different drugs to shorten the purulency of a SUPPERATING MIDDLE EAR. Recently I have been trying nascent iodine in a preparation which produces NASCENT IODINE. I used 1/2% in oil. [A special preparation of nascent iodine in oil, made according to the specifications of a leading Nose, Ear and Throat Specialist, is available on request.] The strength not only did not give pain but was distinctly beneficial. A series of cases was subjected to it with cures in a week to two weeks. Tried it with MAXILLARY ANTRITIS cases with striking benefit. Whatever specific action nascent iodine has, antiseptic or cytefacient is not known, but there is a cessation of the discharge and the local protection is increased.” EAR, NOSE AND THROAT CLINIC. Report #1741.
“SINUS INFECTION. Nothing seemed to help except nascent iodine, and this is an UNUSUALLY DIFFICULT CASE where everything failed.” Report #1953.
“Fine remedy for SINUS TROUBLE. I use a lot of it.” Report #1635.
“I used it several times on a CHRONIC SINUS where tonsil had been removed. The sinus is apparently well. I have cured two cases of CHRONIC OTORRHEA with diluted solution.” Report #2259.
“WORKED VERY WELL.” EYE AND EAR INFIRMARY. Report #1859.
“PHARYNGITIS AND TONSILLITIS cases under observation, fifty-two. In FORTY-SEVEN CASES IMPROVEMENT OCCURRED within three to five days with subsidence of pain, fever and congestion. The solution was employed in swabbing the throat thoroughly.” CITY HOSPITAL. Report #1687.
“Found satisfactory in the treatment of SINUS INFECTION, ACUTE AND CHRONIC.” Report #2052.
BRONCHITIS AND ASTHMA
“HAD CHRONIC BRONCHITIS FOR OVER SEVEN YEARS. Tried many doctors and remedies, with no success. Took three bottles of nascent iodine. I am now well. NO SIGNS OF OLD TROUBLE SINCE. Recommend it to all my patients. WORTH ALL THAT IS CLAIMED FOR IT.” Report #1947.
“BRONCHITIS: 15 CASES TREATED, ALL WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS.” Report #1559.
“Had MOST EXCELLENT RESULTS in all the treatment of ASTHMA AND BRONCHITIS.” Report #2254.
“Had MOST EXCELLENT RESULTS in all the treatment of ASTHMA AND BRONCHITIS.” Report #2254.
“CHRONIC BRONCHITIS case responded nicely after taking nascent iodine.” Report #2259.
“Very good success in relieving a case of BRONCHIAL ASTHMA.” Report #289.
“Good results in CHRONIC BRONCHITIS.” Report #1565.
“Fine for ACUTE AND CHRONIC BRONCHITIS.” Report #2064.
“Found satisfactory in the treatment of BRONCHITIS AND ASTHMA.” Report #2077.
“Nascent iodine three times daily stopped PERSISTENT COUGH OF LONG STANDING.” Report #2165.
ARTHRITIS AND JOINT DISEASES
“We have used nascent iodine and FOUND IT SATISFACTORY IN EVERY WAY.” HOSPITAL FOR JOINT DISEASES. Report #124.
“ARTHRITIS: out of 265 cases, 53 CURED, 185 IMPROVED.” SAILORS HOSPITAL. Report #1935.
“Tried on ARTHRITIS patient who had right knee and wrist swollen, and very painful on least movement. In three days she could move the knee and wrist a lot better and less pain.” Report #2157.
“I have found nascent iodine UNEXCELLED IN THE TREATMENT OF RHEUMATISM, TREATED 50 CASES.” Report #2159.
“Nascent iodine has helped me personally – the OLD RHEUMATIC CONDITION gave way to your ‘Water Soluble’ iodine compound.” Report #130.
“Got EXCELLENT RESULTS IN A CASE OF ARTHRITIS of the knee.” Report #197.
“Found satisfactory in the treatment of CHRONIC RHEUMATISM.” Report #2086.
ACUTE INFECTIONS
Out of 515 cases decided, 483 WITH FAVORABLE RESULTS. Report #1559.
“Severe case of IVY POISONING. Found it to be ALMOST A SPECIFIC.” Report #226.
“CASE (1) “Had been in a local hospital for seven months with STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTION. Draining pus from seven incisions. Prescribed nascent iodine. In two months most of the wounds healed. (2) Severe INFECTION OF TOE NAIL, SEPTIC POISONING SET IN. Gave nascent iodine internally. In four days the infection was cleared up. (3) LEUCORRHEA DISCHARGE WHICH HAD RESISTED EVERY FORM OF MEDICINE. Prescribed nascent iodine douches. In two weeks discharge stopped and the female organs resumed their natural position.” Report #206.
“I have prescribed nascent iodine in many hundreds of cases as a PREVENTIVE AND PROPHYLACTIC in periods of epidemics with marked benefits. As an abortive in infections it has marked and rapid inhibitory action, proving beyond the least doubt that IT HAS DECIDED INTERNAL ANTISEPTIC OR GERMICIDAL ACTION.” Report #1945.
“GIVING IT FIRST PLACE, NOT ONLY IN FIRST AID but think of nothing else when I treat infections. IT IS REALLY WONDERFUL.” Report #193.
LUGOLS IODINE
We learn in Vermont folk medicine, however, that this gland performs other functions besides killing harmful germs in the blood. The first is the rebuilding of energy with which to do the day’s work. There is a definite relationship between the amount of energy you have and your iodine intake. The first question in the presence of a condition of depleted energy is, Is the soil of the state in which one lives iodine-poor? Second, is the deficiency being made up by supple-mentary means? All soils containing granite are iodine-poor and Vermont is one of them. This fact is very important to people living in Vermont and well may be important to those living elsewhere. When energy and endurance run low in relation to doing the day’s work, then the taking of iodine needs to be considered.
A second function of iodine is to calm the body and relieve nervous tension. When nervous tension runs high there is irritability and difficulty in sleeping well at night, and the body is continually on a combat basis, organized for fight and flight. All these points stress a body’s need for iodine to lessen nervous tension, relax the body and enable it to or-ganize for peace and quiet, by the building and storing of body reserves against time of need. I have learned through Vermont folk medicine that it is possible to repeatedly change an irritable, impatient, and restless child under ten years of age into a calm, patient individual within two hours’ time by giving one drop of Lugol’s solution of iodine by mouth in a vegetable or fruit juice or in a glass of water made acid in reaction by adding a teaspoonful of apple cider vinegar. I have repeatedly prescribed this in order to make it possible for a mother of a racehorse-type little boy or girl to be able to live comfortably with the child. I have never seen it fail to calm down a nervous child.
A third function of iodine in the human body relates to clear thinking. The mind simply works better when the body is supplied the iodine it needs.
Then there is the matter of the storing of unwanted fat. Iodine is one of the best oxidizing catalysts we have. A catalyst is the match which touches off in the body the fire that burns up the food we take in each day. If this food is not properly burned off, it may be stored as unwanted fat.
Now while the thyroid gland helpfully stores iodine from the blood passing through it every 17 minutes, the gland may also be made to lose that stored iodine if, for example, we take in drinking water to which chlorine is added, or use too much sodium chloride, whose common name is table salt. There is a well-known law of halogen displacement. The halogen group is made up as follows:
Relative
Halogen Atomic Weight
Fluorine 19.
Chlorine 35.5
Bromine 80.
Iodine 127.
The critical activity of any one of these four halogens is in inverse proportion to its atomic weight. This means that any one of the four can displace the element with a higher atomic weight, but cannot displace an element with a lower atomic weight. For example, fluorine can displace chlorine, bromine and iodine because fluorine has a lower atomic weight than the other three. Similarly, chlorine can displace bromine and iodine because they both have a higher atomic weight. Likewise, bromine can displace iodine from the body because iodine has a higher atomic weight. But a reverse order is not possible. A knowledge of this well-known chemical law brings us to a consideration of the addition of chlorine to our drinking water as a purifying agent. We secure a drinking water that is harmful to the body not because of its harmful germ content but because the chlorine content now causes the body to lose the much-needed iodine.
Because we may live in an iodine-poor area; because drinking water may be treated with chlorine; because we may be sick too often, lack energy and endurance, develop nervous tension, lack the ability of clear thinking, and accumulate unwanted fat, how shall we go about bringing up the iodine content of the body to the point needed?
There are three ways:
1. Eating foods which analysis has shown are particularly rich in iodine. Among these are: all food out of the ocean, radishes, asparagus, carrots, tomatoes, spinach, rhubarb, potatoes, peas, strawberries, mushrooms, lettuce, bananas, cabbage, egg yolk, and onions.
2. Painting a small area of the body with tincture of iodine.
3. Taking preparations known to be rich in iodine. One of these is cod-liver oil. Another is Lugol’s solution of iodine. Still another is kelp.
In 1880 a French physician named Lugol originated a solution which contains iodine in a solution of potassium iodide. It has been used steadily ever since it was originated.
When used to maintain the iodine content of the body the dose is small and is taken only on certain days of the week. When the mineral content of the body is analyzed, only a trace of iodine is found. Ten drops of iodine represent more iodine than is found in the entire body. For this reason, the dose of Lugol’s solution of iodine is one or two drops, depending on your body weight. If you weigh 150 pounds or less, for example, your dose to maintain the normal iodine content of the body is one drop, taken at one meal on Tuesday and Friday of each week. If you weigh more than 150 pounds, the dose should be two drops instead of one. It is useful to remember that the human body works on the minimum of anything it needs. If there should be a rise in sickness in the area where you live, it would be well to take the Lugol’s solution three times a week instead of two, on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, for the purpose of storing up reserve.
While studying selected herds, I became interested in the problem of cattle grubs. These are the larvae, or maggots, of the heel fly. The adult fly does not bite or sting, but it produces great fear and is a serious annoyance to the cattle. Eggs are deposited in a row attached to a single hair of a cow’s heel during the first sunny days of spring. The eggs incubate and hatch in three or four days and the newly hatched maggots penetrate the hide of the cow, causing itching and a flow of serum that mats the hair. The young grubs then work their way upward between the muscles and may be found in a few months in the body cavities. They continue to burrow along the surface of the paunch, intestines, and other internal organs. At certain times many of them are found in the wall of the esophagus, leading from the mouth to the stomach. During the fall and winter the grubs will finally come to the top of the back and lie just under the hide. Each grub cuts a hole through the hide to the surface to get the air which it now needs, and to permit it to escape when ripe. The period spent beneath the hide usually runs from 30 to 90 days. These grubs emerge from the hide dur-ing February and March, dropping to the ground to hatch into heel flies. In 18 to 80 days after escaping from the back of the cow, the adult fly hatches and is ready to mate within a half hour. My object was to rout these cattle grubs by means of the apple cider vinegar and iodine combination; this would demonstrate, to me at least, what the combination would do in the way of making the body as a host unsuitable soil for the development and continuing existence of microorgan isms, viruses, insects, and other parasites. During one year’s time only ten grubs were discovered on the backs of a herd of 45 registered Jersey cows. Usually these grubs are a little larger round than a pencil, but these ten grubs had such hard going in the cows’ bodies against the vinegar and iodine that they were no larger around than toothpicks. I observed further with reference to a ration supplement high in iodine value that when it was used, the bacterial count of the milk went down; when iodine was dis-continued, the count went up but could be driven down again immediately with resumption of the iodine.
Two drops of Lugol’s solution of iodine works equally well in an adult. When the stress and strain of daily living create a load that is difficult to carry, producing a state of anxiety, and when the day’s problems make it difficult to relax and sleep well at night, then one appreciates the aid that iodine gives. In an adult two teaspoonfuls of apple cider vinegar and two of honey are added to a glass of water. The honey is there because it is a sedative. Then add two drops of Lugol’s solution of iodine to the glass containing the vinegar and- honey mixture, stir it, and sip it during the meal as you would coffee or tea. Taken apart from the meal it can be sipped like a cocktail. Soon your motor will have slipped into low gear. Your problems and their solution will seem less difficult, and the day’s load of responsibility easier to carry. In this age of anxiety the combination of iodine with vinegar and water will give the harassed individual increased energy and the endurance necessary to carry the daily load. You will find that the wear and tear of daily living is considerably reduced